The Sultanate of Rum
Seljuk EmpireFrom Defeat to Dynasty: The Birth of Rum
In 1071, the Byzantine Empire suffered a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Manzikert against the Great Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan. While this victory opened Anatolia to Turkish settlement, it was not Alp Arslan himself who would establish lasting rule there. Instead, it was Suleyman ibn Qutalmish, a ambitious Seljuk prince who had been in rebellion against his own family, who seized the opportunity. Around 1077, Suleyman established the Sultanate of Rum in western Anatolia, taking the title of Sultan and founding a dynasty that would endure for over two centuries. The name 'Rum' itself reveals the sultanate's origins—it derives from 'Rome,' reflecting the Turkish understanding that they had conquered the eastern Roman (Byzantine) territories. This new state began as little more than a collection of raiding bands and small settlements, but would grow into one of the most significant powers in medieval Anatolia.
Building an Empire in Byzantine Heartland
Suleyman and his successors faced the enormous challenge of transforming nomadic Turkish warriors into settled rulers while simultaneously fighting both Byzantines and fellow Muslims. The early sultans established their capital at Nicaea (modern Iznik) in 1081, placing themselves uncomfortably close to Constantinople itself. This proximity proved both advantageous and dangerous—while it allowed them to raid Byzantine territories and attract Turkish settlers, it also made them prime targets for Byzantine reconquest efforts. The sultanate's expansion was neither smooth nor inevitable. The Crusades, beginning in 1096, posed an existential threat when the First Crusade recaptured Nicaea in 1097, forcing the Rum Seljuks to relocate their capital to Konya (ancient Iconium). However, the sultans proved remarkably adaptable, learning to play Christian Crusaders against Muslim rivals while gradually consolidating their hold over central and eastern Anatolia. By the early 12th century, they had transformed from raiders into builders of cities and patrons of Islamic culture.
The Golden Age Under the Lion and the Conqueror
The reign of Kilij Arslan II (1156-1192), known as the 'Sword of the Lion,' marked the sultanate's emergence as a major regional power. This sultan skillfully navigated the treacherous waters of the Second and Third Crusades, sometimes allying with Crusaders against common enemies, sometimes fighting them directly. His diplomatic acumen was matched by his military success—he decisively defeated a Byzantine army at the Battle of Myriokephalon in 1176, effectively ending Byzantine hopes of reconquering central Anatolia. The sultanate reached its zenith under Kaykhusraw I and his successors in the early 13th century. These rulers presided over a remarkable cultural flowering, building magnificent mosques, madrasas, and caravanserais that still dot the Turkish landscape today. Trade flourished as the sultanate controlled key routes between Europe and Asia, and cities like Konya became centers of Islamic learning and Sufi mysticism, attracting scholars and poets from across the Islamic world.
Decline and the Mongol Shadow
The sultanate's prosperity was shattered by the arrival of the Mongols in the 1240s. Kaykhusraw II faced the Mongol general Baiju at the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243, where the Seljuk army was decisively defeated. This catastrophe marked the beginning of the end for independent Seljuk rule in Anatolia. The sultans became vassals of the Mongol Ilkhanate, forced to pay tribute and accept Mongol oversight of their affairs. Internal strife plagued the dynasty as rival claimants fought for a throne that carried increasingly little real power. The last effective Rum Seljuk sultan, Kaykhusraw III, died in 1284, though puppet rulers continued to use the title until the early 14th century. By 1308, the sultanate had effectively ceased to exist, its territories fragmented among various Turkish beyliks (principalities) that would themselves eventually be absorbed by the rising Ottoman Empire. Despite its collapse, the Sultanate of Rum had accomplished something remarkable: it had permanently established Turkish and Islamic culture in the heart of what had been Christian Byzantine Anatolia for over seven centuries.
Key Dates to Remember
- 1077 — Suleyman ibn Qutalmish establishes the Sultanate of Rum
- 1081 — Capital established at Nicaea
- 1097 — First Crusade captures Nicaea, capital moved to Konya
- 1176 — Battle of Myriokephalon - decisive Seljuk victory over Byzantines
- 1243 — Battle of Köse Dağ - Mongol victory ends independent Seljuk rule
- 1308 — Effective end of the Sultanate of Rum