The Peninsular War Begins
Napoleonic EraNapoleon's Spanish Gambit
By 1807, Napoleon Bonaparte was at the height of his power, having conquered much of continental Europe. But there was one persistent thorn in his side: Portugal. This small Atlantic nation stubbornly refused to join his Continental System, the economic blockade designed to strangle British trade. Portugal's ports remained open to British merchants, and worse still, the Portuguese court maintained its centuries-old alliance with Britain. Napoleon decided it was time to bring the Iberian Peninsula under French control. His solution seemed elegant: use Spain as a pathway to Portugal. After all, Spain was already France's ally under the Treaty of San Ildefonso, and Spanish King Charles IV appeared weak and malleable. What could possibly go wrong? This decision would prove to be one of Napoleon's greatest miscalculations, opening what he himself would later call his 'Spanish ulcer' – a wound that would drain French resources and manpower for six bloody years.
The Treaty of Fontainebleau and the Royal Crisis
In October 1807, Napoleon struck a deal with Spanish Prime Minister Manuel Godoy through the Treaty of Fontainebleau. The agreement allowed French troops to march through Spain to invade Portugal, with the conquered territory to be divided between France and Spain. By November, General Andoche Junot's army was racing toward Lisbon, while the Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil under British naval protection. But Napoleon had grander plans than his Spanish allies realized. As French troops poured into Spain ostensibly heading for Portugal, they began occupying key Spanish fortresses and cities. The Spanish court was in chaos: King Charles IV was unpopular, his son Ferdinand plotted against him, and Queen María Luisa was rumored to have an affair with Godoy. In March 1808, a popular uprising forced Charles IV to abdicate in favor of Ferdinand VII. Sensing opportunity in this royal mess, Napoleon summoned both father and son to Bayonne, France, where he convinced them to renounce their claims to the Spanish throne in his favor.
The Spark: The Dos de Mayo Uprising
The breaking point came on May 2, 1808 – the famous Dos de Mayo – five weeks before Napoleon named his brother Joseph Bonaparte King of Spain, a change of dynasty the Spanish people were never consulted about. French Marshal Joachim Murat had been left in command of Madrid, and tensions were already high as French soldiers occupied the capital. When the French attempted to remove the remaining members of the Spanish royal family from Madrid, a crowd gathered at the Royal Palace to prevent their departure. What started as a protest quickly escalated into a full-scale uprising as ordinary Madrileños – armed with knives, scissors, and whatever weapons they could find – attacked French soldiers in the streets. The French response was swift and brutal. Murat declared martial law and ordered mass executions of anyone found carrying weapons. The events of May 2 and the executions of May 3 (immortalized later in Goya's famous paintings) became a rallying cry for Spanish resistance across the entire peninsula.
The Fire Spreads: Nationwide Rebellion
The Madrid uprising was like a match thrown into dry tinder. Within weeks, rebellions erupted across Spain as provincial juntas (governing committees) declared independence from French rule and proclaimed loyalty to the deposed Ferdinand VII. The Spanish regular army was divided and confused, with some units supporting the French while others joined the rebels. But it was the Spanish people themselves who provided the real shock to French forces. This wasn't the conventional warfare Napoleon's Grande Armée was used to – it was something entirely different. Spanish irregulars, later called guerrillas (meaning 'little war'), began attacking French supply lines, ambushing isolated detachments, and melting away into the countryside. Meanwhile, British forces under Sir Arthur Wellesley (later the Duke of Wellington) landed in Portugal in August 1808 to support Portuguese and Spanish resistance. At the Battle of Bailén in July 1808, Spanish forces achieved the unthinkable – they defeated an entire French army corps, forcing General Pierre Dupont to surrender with 18,000 men. It was Napoleon's first major defeat on land, and news of it electrified Europe.
Napoleon Enters the Fray
The disaster at Bailén and the continuing Spanish resistance forced Napoleon to take personal command. In November 1808, he crossed the Pyrenees with 200,000 veterans of his campaigns in Austria and Prussia – the largest army he had ever led. His appearance transformed the military situation almost overnight. Spanish armies that had been confident after Bailén were systematically crushed as Napoleon advanced on Madrid. The Spanish capital fell in December 1808, and Joseph Bonaparte was reinstalled on his throne. British forces, now under Sir John Moore, were forced into a desperate retreat to the port of Corunna, where Moore was killed in the rearguard action that covered the evacuation. By February 1809, Napoleon seemed to have restored French control over most of Spain. But just as he was preparing to eliminate the last pockets of resistance, urgent news arrived from Austria: Archduke Charles was preparing for war. Napoleon was forced to return to central Europe, leaving the Spanish campaign to his marshals. Without his personal leadership, the war would drag on for five more years, consuming French resources and contributing significantly to Napoleon's eventual downfall.
Key Dates to Remember
- October 27, 1807 — Treaty of Fontainebleau signed, allowing French troops to cross Spain to attack Portugal
- March 19, 1808 — Charles IV of Spain abdicates in favor of his son Ferdinand VII after popular uprising
- May 2, 1808 — Dos de Mayo uprising in Madrid against French occupation sparks nationwide rebellion
- July 19, 1808 — Battle of Bailén - Spanish forces defeat French army, Napoleon's first major land defeat
- August 1, 1808 — British forces land in Portugal under Sir Arthur Wellesley to support resistance
- November 1808 — Napoleon personally leads 200,000 troops into Spain to restore French control